Татьяна Бочкарева - Английский язык для студентов заочной формы обучения

In the case when government expenditures are exactly equal to tax revenues in a given year the government is running a balanced budget far that year. By increasing or decreasing its spending or taxing programs, the government may reduce or increase demand for goods and services. If the government reduces its own spending, it buys less from businesses, reducing sales and earnings, and people have less money to spend. In a similar way, if the government raises taxes, people have less money to spend. Moreover, spending and taxing policies work together to the same effect. For example, if the government taxes to a greater extent than it spends, it causes reduction in the flow of income to people and businesses. Because this reduces aggregate goods and services, it is a method for fighting inflation. If the government is to increase spending it creates a budget deficit, a situation in which more money has been spent than it is available. Fiscal policy uses budget deficits to promote economic stability and growth. In addition, governments through budget make transfer payments to some members of society. A transfer, is a payment for which no corresponding service is provided in return (в ответ). Examples are retirement pensions and unemployment benefits.

Text B.

Taxation is as old as government. Even the earliest and simplest societies needed some method of maintaining order and providing for justice and those services could not be provided without cost. It is to a greater extent necessary in a modern state: without it, it would not be possible to pay the soldiers who protect us or pay for things that we need just as much as we need somewhere live as something to eat.

But though everyone knows that taxation is necessary, different people have different ideas about how taxation should be arranged. Should each person have to pay a certain amount of money to the government each year? Or should there be a tax on things that people buy and sell? If the first kind of taxation is used, should everyone pay the same tax whether he is rich or poor? If the second of taxation is preferred, should everything be taxed equally?

In most countries, a direct tax on persons, which is called income tax exists. It is arranged in such a way, that the poorest people pay nothing, and the percentage of tax grows greater as the taxpayer’s income grows.

But countries with direct taxation nearly always have indirect taxation, too. Many things imported into the country pay taxes or “duties”. Of course, it is the men and women who buy these imported things in the shops who really have to pay the duties, in the shops. If the most necessary things are taxed, a lot of money is collected, but the poor people suffer most. If unnecessary things like jewels and far coals are taxed less money is collected, but the tax is fairer as the rich pay it.

Countries vary in the balance of their taxation: some rely more on direct taxes while others prefer indirect taxation.

Text C. Types of Taxes

Taxation is very complex, and here we can outline only the most important categories. Thus taxes can be divided into federal, regional and local depending on the area and place of residence. Depending on the way taxes are levied, they are divided into direct and indirect ones.

Text D. Direct Taxes

Direct taxes are taxes paid on income or capital of individuals persons or corporals. The example are personal income tax, corporation company tax on profits, social insurance tax and some other. Indirect taxes are those paid on goods and services, that is when money is spent. Examples are value added tax (VAT) customs and excise duties. Income tax is the most significant countries, it forms the largest part of revenues collected by the government. In Russia the income tax is only 13 % whereas in Britain it usually is as much as 30 %. Also, income tax tends to treat different a people equally. The idea is: the largest a person’s earnings, the this tax is at least potentially, a progressive one: more is paid as income rises. This may become a drawback of there is no incentive to work harder because people may feel that they earn relatively less and pay more tax. If nearly half of what people earn goes to the government, they might prefer to work fewer hours and spend more time in the garden or watching TV.

However, if income tax is truly progressive it is an important means of increasing the elastically of the tax structure.

It is also worth nothing that income tax is rather a simple one to collect, as many employers pay the tax directly for the employees, deducting it from the salary before it is paid.

What is most needed to make income tax more effective and fair is a radical improvement of its administration.

2.2.5.3 Задание 1. Ответьте на вопросы по текстам А, B,С, D

1 What do governments spend money on in every society?

2 Trough what is government expenditure spending financed?

3 What is a tax?

4 What does fiscal policy mean?

5 How may the government reduce or increase demand for goods and services?

6 When do people have less money to spend?

7 What does fiscal policy use to promote economic stability and growth?

8 What questions occur about how taxation should be arranged?

9 How do countries vary in the balance of their taxation?

10 What does direct taxes mean?

11 What does indirect taxes mean?

2.2.6.1 Задание 1. Прочитайте и запомните следующие слова и словосочетания:

essential part – основная часть;

business paper – деловые бумаги;

recipient – получатель;

to intend – предназначать;

impression – впечатление;

agreement – соглашение;

venture – смелое предприятие, осмеливаться;

to involve – вовлекать;

negotiation – переговоры;

to draft – проект, набросок;

to enforce – следить за соблюдением;

to avoid – избегать;

inquiry – запрос;

offer – предложение, предлагать;

order – приказ, заказ;

quotation – цена (продавца);

to reply – отвечать;

customer – потребитель, клиент;

consignment – партия;

approach – предложение, подход;

delivery – доставка;

insurance – страхование, страховка.

2.2.6.2 Задание 2. Прочитайте тексты и переведите их письменно

Text. English business letters

Letter writing is an essential part of business communication. A cheque, a contract or any other business paper sent by mail should always be accompanied by a letter. The letter says what is being sent, so that the recipient should know exactly what you intended to send. It is a typical business letter called «routine».

A well arranged letter will make a better impression on the reader, thus good letters make good business partners.

Nowadays more and more agreements are made in English, for English is a universal business language. Joint ventures, bank loans, and trademark licenses are frequently written in English.

There are three stages of transactions involving business contracts: first – negotiation of terms, second – drafting documents reflecting these terms, and third – litigation (спор) to enforce or to avoid executing of these terms.

Business letters may be divided into official and semi-official. The first kind of letters is characteristic of those people working in business: an executive, a department manager, a salesman, a secretary or a specialist in business and technology. But also many people may want to buy something, to accept an invitation or to congratulate somebody – this is a kind of semi-official letters. The first kind of letters may in turn be subdivided into such groups as: inquiries, offers, orders, and so on.

Example 1. An inquiry letter

JACKSON & MILES

118 Regent Street

London WIC 37D

UK

Gentlemen: 21 Oct, 2000

We saw your women's dresses and suits in your October catalogue. The lines you showed would be most suitable for our market.

Would you kindly send us your quotation for spring and summer clothing that you could supply to us by the end of January next.

We would require 2,000 dresses and suits in each of the sizes 10-14, and 500 in sizes 8 and 16. Please quote c.i.f. Chicago prices.

Payment is normally made by letter of credit. Thank you for an early reply.

P.Pratt

P.PRATT.Jr

Buyer

NOTES:In the first part of a letter there is a kind of introduction as a prospective customer approaches supplier for the first time, and it is from this part that we found out that the correspondents are engaged in textile industry.

The second part expresses request for detailed information about the goods in question, their prices and terms of possible transaction.

In this example we come across the abbreviation concerning the terms of delivery, that are commonly accepted in business world.

c. i.f.– cost, insurance, freight.

If consignment is to be delivered according to c.i.f., then the supplier insures the goods and pays for the whole delivery.

f. o.b.– free on board.

If consignment is to be delivered according to f.o.b., then the supplier pays for transportation to port, ship or air shipment and dispatch; and the customer pay» for onward transportation and insurance.

f. o.r.– free on rail.

It is the same as f.o.b., but for railway transportation. с & f– cost and freight.

If consignment is to be delivered according to с & f, then the supplier pays for the whole delivery and the customer – for insurance,

Example 2. The answering letter

HOWARD & PRATT

Ladies' Clothing

306, 3d Avenue

Chicago, 111. 60602

Dear Sirs,

We are pleased to make you an offer regarding our products in the size you require. Nearly all the mod responsible for making decisions and taking risks. To operate successfully you need to follow well defined instructions and you prefer work that is both regular and predictable.

2.2.6.3 Задание 3. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту

1 What is an essential part of business communication?

2 What should all business paper sent by mail be accompanied by?

3 What does the business letter say?

4 How is a typical business letter called?

5 Why is it important to make business letter well?

6 Why are more agreements, made in English?

7 What are three stages of transactions involving business contracts?

8 How may business letters be divided?

9 What do we call “a semi-official letters”?

2.2.7.1 Задание 1. Прочитайте и запомните следующие слова и словосочетания: